Fig. 7. Simple representation of how squeeze force compresses a combination gasket/O-ring seal during gland assembly.

Fig. 8. Percentage compression set exhibited by typical families of sealing elastomers used in fluid power systems.

Fig. 9. Plots of compressive load vs. O-ring seal cross-section for three different seal material hardnesses.

Fig. 10. Cross-sectional sketch of a combination gasket/ O-ring seal before and after installation.

Fig. 11. The basic element of a combination gasket/O-ring seal is a retainer with grooves in one or both surfaces into which an elastomer is molded.

Fig. 12. The illustration to the left is an FEA mesh model of a U-cup cross section, while at right is the deformed shape after installation.

Low-pressure considerations

Almost every hydraulic system, however, will face occasions when the equipment is not operating, and the pressure falls to zero. Or, in some applications, the system's pressure may never exceed 100 psi. These are typical of the types of operations defined as low pressure; that is, when the confined fluid media exert little or no pressure force on the sealing element to affect or augment a seal.

Within the framework of low-pressure sealing, several primary design considerations affect sealability:

• seal squeeze
• compression set
• sealing force
• gland surface finish conditions, and
• molding flash.

Squeeze

A seal component is generally installed in a groove machined into one of the surfaces to be sealed. As the two surfaces are brought together to form a gland, they squeeze the diametral cross section of the seal. The mechanical squeezing action deforms the seal cross section; the degree of deformation obviously is a function of the squeezing force. In low-pressure applications, the tendency of the squeezed elastomer to maintain its original shape creates a seal. As the elastomer shape is deformed in its gland, it exerts a counter force against the mating surfaces equal to the force squeezing it, Figure 7, and hence, provides the available sealing force.

Thus, squeeze is a major low-pressure consideration. The recommended squeeze levels are a function of seal cross section, the application conditions and whether the application is dynamic or static.Dynamic compression typically is lower than static compression, due to seal wear and friction considerations. Table 1 summarizes dynamic squeeze levels as defined by MIL-G-5514F - a document which is a good guide to those parameters. Static data in the table are summarized from common industrial practice.

Compression set

Compression set reflects the partial loss of memory due to the time effect. In hydraulic systems operating over extreme temperature ranges, it is not uncommon for compression-type seals, such as O-rings, to leak fluid at low pressure because they have deformed permanently or taken a set after used for a period of time. The term compression set refers to the permanent deflection remaining in the seal after complete release of a squeezing load while exposed to a particular temperature level. As related to low-pressure sealing, set-the loss of memory-reduces the compressive sealing force.

Compression set is expressed as a fraction of the initial squeeze. Thus, a 0% compression set value indicates complete recovery from a compressive load, producing the maximum possible compressive sealing force. A 100% set value indicates no recovery or rebound at all. A seal in this condition will no longer provide a sealing force and hence, has no ability to act as a low-pressure seal. The bar graph in Figure 8 depicts the range of typical compression set values for various sealing elastomers. Of course, compression set properties are a major but not the only factor affecting elastomer choice for low-pressure sealing. Compatibility with various hydraulic fluids must be considered as well.

Sealing force

There are several factors affecting the sealing force:

• material hardness
• percentage squeeze, and
• seal cross-section size

For a certain amount of squeeze, the sealing force is directly related to the hardness or elastic moduli of seal materials for low-pressure applications. The harder the material, the larger the initial sealing force. A seal material has a nonlinear stress-strain curve and needs to be described by special material models. For simplicity, linear moduli, such as Young's modulus and shear modulus, are usually used due to their direct relations to the material hardness. The modulus commonly used for specification purpose is tensile stress at a specified elongation. For example, modulus at 100% elongation is the tensile stress corresponding to that elongation.

Hardness generally is measured with a durometer gage - typically using the Shore A scale. The gage measures the force required to deflect the flat surface of a rubber specimen with a pointed indicator. The A scale ranges from 0 to 100; a 90 Shore A compound would be designated as a hard (or high-viscosity) material, and would exhibit much higher compressive force than a 60 Shore A compound, which would be classified as soft.

For a specific material, seal compression force of the elastomeric material increases as the percentage deflection of the seal's diametral cross- section increases. Dynamic squeeze levels typically should be limited to around 12% due to friction and related-wear considerations. Static squeeze levels can be as high as 30%.

It generally is recommended that a minimum of 0.009-in. squeeze be induced on radial seal cross sections due to compression set considerations. Maximum radial squeeze should be held to 30% because greater squeeze causes assembly difficulties and elastomer deterioration. Compressive sealing load is also directly related to the size of seal's cross-section, Figure 9.

Gland surface finishes

Two physical characteristics of the seal contact-band areas can affect how well the available sealing force is transmitted. These are:

• parting line projection and flash on the seal, and
• sealing surface finishes in the gland.

The finish on machined surfaces that come into contact with the seal is a significant factor in achieving optimum seal performance. Finishes can be defined by different systems, which are often misunderstood and sometimes incorrectly specified in hydraulic design. The American Standard Association provides a set of terms and symbols to define basic surface characteristics, such as profile, roughness, waviness, flaws, and lays.

Roughness is the most commonly specified characteristic and is usually expressed in units of µin. Roughness provides a measure of the deviation of the surface irregularities from an average plane through the surface. In most cases, geometric average roughness or root mean square (RMS) is the preferred method. RMS measurement is sensitive to occasional peaks and valleys over a given sample length.

As related to low-pressure sealing, the sealing element must penetrate these micro imperfections and irregularities in order to block the passage of the fluid media across the contact band area. It is generally accepted and recommended that dynamic interfaces should not exceed RMS values of 16 µin. or 0.4 µm. Static interfaces should not exceed RMS values of 32 µin. or 0.8 µm. Special fluid media would benefit from smoother finishes as listed in Table 2.

Parting line projections and flash

Just as there are irregularities in the form of roughness on the gland surface, there are irregularities or imperfections on the sealing element known as parting line projections and flash. A parting line projection is that continuous ridge of material along the line where the mold halves come together at the ID and/or OD of molded rubber seals, such as O- and T-rings. It results from worn or otherwise enlarged corner radii on the mold edges.

Flash is a thinner, film-like material that extrudes from the parting line projection. It is caused by mold separation when material is introduced or inadequate trimming or buffing after molding. Because flash lines are inevitable in clam-shell-type, compression molding processes, the degree of flash must be controlled. Control is especially critical in low-pressure applications and applications sealing gas-oil interfaces. Standards such as MIL-STD-413E and those in the Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA) Handbooks provide guidelines on allowable flash criteria for manufacturers and users.

Sealing performance characteristics can be enhanced by eliminating the flash line completely from dynamic and static sealing interfaces. This practice is especially desirable in accumulator applications and those requiring low-viscosity fluid media, such as silicone oils. Manufacturers may offer an optional flash-free seal design for these stringent applications.

Gasket/O-ring-seal combinations

There are three primary static sealing methods in use today. The flat gasket is the oldest of the three. Where reusability is not required and where the possibility of some leakage can be tolerated, the flat gasket may be the best choice. The O-ring represents a marked improvement over the flat gasket for installations where little or no leakage can be tolerated.

The combination gasket/O-ring seal, Figure 10, represents a significant improvement over both the flat gasket and the O-Ring in a groove for near zero-leakage sealing in static applications. Advantages of the combination gasket/O-ring seal are:

• ease of installation
• sealing element(s) molded precisely in place
• limited area of seal exposed to fluid attack
• visibly inspectable after assembly
• no re-torquing required
• high reliability, and
• no special machining of mating flange surface required (no grooves).

The combination gasket/O-ring seal consists of a retainer plate with a groove in one or both element(s). This seal may be either chemically bonded to the groove, Figure 7, and/or mechanically locked in place by cross-holes in the groove, Figure 11. The combination gasket/O-ring seals are relatively more expensive than O-rings.

FEA-assisted seal design

Vitally important to any method of sealing is the ability of the seal to achieve the proper balance between developing enough elastomer stress to provide an adequate seal and not developing too much stress, which would prematurely degrade the seal. Depending on the type and requirements of the seal, this seal/stress relationship will be different.

The study of elastomer stress and its relationship to seal effectiveness has been dramatically enhanced with the advent of Finite Element Analysis (FEA). FEA is a numerical modeling technique that has been used quite successfully for seal applications. FEA can predict seal deformed shapes and stress distributions after installation, in operation and under various conditions. This information is very important in evaluating the following: stability, sealability, thermal deformation, swelling, and seal life. FEA is becoming a very powerful tool for seal design optimization.

The procedure for FEA-assisted seal design can be summarized as follows:

• seal shape sketch
• material selection
• material characterization testing (such as tensile stress strain curve, bulk modulus, thermal constants, friction constants, etc.)
• material model selection (Mooney-Rivlin, Ogden, etc.)
• mesh modeling, boundary condition definition
• numerical analysis
• post-processing (output), and
• to see if the seal shape needs to be modified.

Figure 12 shows an example of an FEA plot. FEA is also used for flow and mold analyses, which are desired for elastomer processing control.